By Stella Aslibekyan, Briana Cameron and Teresa Filshtein



A <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/23andme-research/23andme-explores-dietary-habit-and-health-outcomes/">recent 23andMe blog post</a> explored the old adage “you are what you eat,” examining the relationship between eating habits and their health outcomes.



However, we wanted to explore another dimension of the data. We wanted to see if where you live is associated with what you eat. So rather than looking at “you are what you eat,” we want to see whether “You eat where you are.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-geography">Dietary Geography</h2>



Years of scientific research have brought us to the almost undeniable conclusion that the food you eat affects health outcomes, especially later in life. However, dietary habits can be influenced by many different factors. Some of those factors include personal food preferences, local policy, availability of options, and cultural ones, like the habits of those around us. (See our new paper on <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.04.14.20058263v1">dietary habits research</a> and the sidebar to this post, &#8220;A New Recipe for Nutritional Studies.&#8221;)



<figure class="wp-block-image alignright size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="283" height="424" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/mediterranean-diet.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-17819" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/mediterranean-diet.jpg 283w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/mediterranean-diet-200x300.jpg 200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 283px) 100vw, 283px" /></figure>



Being aware of external factors influencing your dietary habits could be a first step to making changes that might reduce your risk of adverse health outcomes such as type 2 diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular events, accelerated aging, and more.[1] One external factor is location, as public health research has shown how “food deserts”&nbsp; — urban and rural neighborhoods without grocery stores — have contributed to poor health outcomes. At 23andMe, we have a unique opportunity to explore the connections between diet and geography.



Our scientists analyzed data from more than 750,000 23andMe customers who consented to participate in the research and shared details about their eating habits. Our results focused on four major food categories: vegetable and fruit intake, sugar intake (added sugar intake and sugar-sweetened beverages), red meat intake, and dairy intake. Vegetables, fruit, and dairy were measured in cups per day; sugar was measured in teaspoons per day, and red meat was measured in times eaten per day.



We found distinct differences in eating habits among broad regions in the United States and between urban and rural environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-habits-in-the-us">Dietary Habits in the US</h2>



The map clearly shows that people in the West and Northeast eat more fruit and vegetables, while those in the Central and Southern U.S. eat more sugar. Below are some nutrition maps across the U.S. Each map represents a visualization of self-reported consumption by county. In each map, red indicates consumption levels associated with BMI increases.



<figure class="wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-2 is-cropped wp-block-gallery-1 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex">
<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="512" height="376" data-id="30711" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Fruit-Map.png" alt="" class="wp-image-30711" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Fruit-Map.png 512w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Fruit-Map-300x220.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">People in the West and Northeast consume more fruit.</figcaption></figure>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="512" height="376" data-id="30707" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Dairy-Map.png" alt="" class="wp-image-30707" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Dairy-Map.png 512w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Dairy-Map-300x220.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Northern US consumes greater amounts of dairy than the Southern half, with the highest consumption in the northern Central region. </figcaption></figure>
</figure>



The maps represent the average self-reported consumption of each dietary factor at the county level; counties with less than 5 participants were not evaluated and show up in white on the map to protect our participants&#8217; privacy. 



<figure class="wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-2 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex">
<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="512" height="376" data-id="30706" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Vegetables-1.png" alt="" class="wp-image-30706" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Vegetables-1.png 512w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Vegetables-1-300x220.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">People in the West and Northeast also eat more vegetables.</figcaption></figure>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="512" height="376" data-id="30709" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Sugar.png" alt="" class="wp-image-30709" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Sugar.png 512w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Mean-Sugar-300x220.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sugar consumption in the US followed a pattern opposite to that of vegetables and fruits, with the highest consumption occurring in the Central and Southern parts of the country. </figcaption></figure>
</figure>



Each map is scaled such that the color shift occurs at the median. Gradients within color are based on quantiles, so extremes (bottom and top 5 percent of the population) are darkest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rural-effect-nbsp">The Rural Effect&nbsp;</h2>



<div style="float: right; text-align: justified; width: 300px; background-color: #eee; padding: 10px; margin-left: 15px;">
A New Recipe for Nutritional Studies
Something so elemental as food shouldn’t be so complicated. Still, it is often confusing to scan through the conflicting coverage about what is and what isn’t healthy to eat.
<code style="display: none;"></code>Is sugar toxic? Is coffee good or bad for you? And what about red meat and eggs?
<code style="display: none;"></code><a href=" https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2017/05/how-your-eating-habits-affect-your-health">Diet and nutrition are </a><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/13/opinion/diet-research-nutrition.html">difficult to study.</a> But studying what we consume is critical for understanding because of how and what we eat impacts our health. This understanding is especially true as the implications of diet-related conditions like obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and heart disease rise to epidemic proportions. That’s what makes nutritional studies — as well as better ways of powering those studies — so critical.
<code style="display: none;"></code>This week, 23andMe <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.04.14.20058263v1">published a paper</a> describing our unique approach to these kinds of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/observational-study">observational studies</a>, which make up a cornerstone of nutrition research. With millions of individuals who have consented to participate in research and answer questions about their daily eating habits, 23andMe’s can quickly collect nutritional information in real-time.
<code style="display: none;"></code>Using this data with other health-related information can help inform studies that look at the impact of different diets on different populations, identify trends, and spot correlations. For example, we’ve spotted seasonal dietary changes, differences in diet between men and women, and people of different age groups. We’ve also looked at correlations between different kinds of diets and exercise frequency.
<code style="display: none;"></code>Most recently our researchers looked at geographic differences in the United States and diet. This helped illuminate not just the differences in diet between urban and rural populations but also the differences in lifestyles between these communities. Looking at these different types of data in different ways allows scientists to explore the complicated relationship between diet, lifestyle, and health.
<code style="display: none;"></code>In our<a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.04.14.20058263v1"> new paper</a>, we demonstrate 23andMe&#8217;s ability to quickly and contemporaneously collect nutritional data for fast assessment of trends. We can do this much faster and at a much larger scale than traditional approaches like those of the CDC’s National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm">NHANES</a>).
<code style="display: none;"></code>“23andMe created an opportunity for very large, rapid-scale, and real-time data collection, which may inform national nutritional trends and future epidemiologic studies in a much shorter time frame than ever before,” said Stella Aslibekyan, Ph.D., a co-author of the paper and Senior Scientist at 23andMe.
<code style="display: none;"></code>Although 23andMe customers are not exactly representative of the population as a whole, as 23andMe grows and diversifies, findings drawn from this data will be more applicable to the population as a whole. The next step will be adding genetic data and this, in turn, will help in learning more about how genetics and changes in dietary habits and lifestyle can improve health and prevent chronic disease.
</div>



In addition to exploring nutritional habits by county, we also looked at the effect of living in a rural vs. urban setting on dietary habits. After adjusting for age, sex, and BMI, we saw whether you lived in a rural vs urban setting[2], which was highly associated with dietary habits across all four food types we considered. Participants living in rural environments were likelier to consume added sugar, dairy, and red meat, whereas urban participants ate more fruits and vegetables.



This difference in dietary behavior (i.e., the &#8216;&#8221;rural effect&#8217;”) is equivalent in magnitude to the increase in sugar-sweetened beverages associated with a 14-point increase in BMI in males and a 10-point BMI increase in females. Even more striking is the association with added sugar; the rural effect is equivalent to a 19-point increase in BMI in males and an 11-point increase in females. The BMI equivalence of the rural effect on red meat is 6 and 9 BMI points in males and females, respectively,&nbsp; and dairy consumption is 13 and 7 points for males and females. The rural effect was more pronounced in men than in women for the dairy and sugar domains and was more robust in women for red meat. (See Figure 2 for a graphical display of these results.)



<figure class="wp-block-image alignright"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="300" height="239" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/BMI-Table-300x239-1.png" alt="" class="wp-image-30768"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"> Figure 2: BMI equivalence of the rural effect. Figure 2 represents the average effect of moving from an urban setting to a rural setting associated with each nutritional domain, in terms of BMI points, for a 50-year-old individual. Specifically, for an urban-dwelling male (female) age 50, each line segment represents the equivalent BMI points associated with moving to a rural setting (SSB = sugar-sweetened beverages).&nbsp;</figcaption></figure>



While these results may seem counterintuitive, as rural settings are often where food that feeds the country is grown, studies have shown that people in these settings usually have limited access to healthy food choices. In fact, many rural communities rely on convenience stores for their food, which often offer little to no healthy options.<a id="a3" href="#f3">[3]</a> In addition, education on nutrition and funding for nutrition programs in rural schools also appears to be limited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discussion-nbsp">Discussion&nbsp;</h2>



23andMe’s extensive database of self-reported dietary habits allows one to study the individual and geographic factors that influence what we eat. While factors such as sex, age, and BMI can impact our nutritional habits, where you live can also be an essential contributor to your diet. Visualizations of self-reported consumption by county show striking spatial patterns across the US. Our data also suggest that living in an urban vs. rural environment can impact diet. Participants living in rural environments were likelier to consume added sugar, dairy, and red meat, whereas urban participants ate more fruits and vegetables. Good nutrition is a critical component of leading a healthy lifestyle and understanding dietary differences between urban and rural environments may potentially help address the noted health gap between urban and rural America (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ruralhealth/cause-of-death.html">CDC source</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footnotes">Footnotes:</h2>



 <a id="f1" href="#a1">[1]</a> &#8220;<a href="https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2017/05/how-your-eating-habits-affect-your-health">How Your Eating Habits Affect Your Health | NIH News in Health</a>.&#8221; Accessed 26 Aug. 2019.



<footer class="footnotes"><code style="display: none;"> 
</code><code style="display: none;"> 
</code><a id="f2" href="#a2">[2]</a> USDA Rural-Urban continuum codes were used to classify participants as living in an urban or rural setting based on reported zip code (<a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/rural-urban-continuum-codes/">source</a>)</footer>



<footer class="footnotes"><code style="display: none;"> 
</code><code style="display: none;"></code> <a id="f3" href="#a3">[3]</a> Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity in Rural America</footer>



<footer class="footnotes"><code style="display: none;"> 
</code><code style="display: none;"><code style="display: none;"></code></code>
&nbsp;
</footer>

Stella Aslibekyan

23andMe Maps the Way We Eat 

Everybody hurts, but we all hurt a little differently because pain and how we perceive it is both complex and personal.<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright wp-image-25253 size-medium" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pain-300x200.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="200" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pain-300x200.jpg 300w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pain.jpg 724w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />
That makes studying and treating the intricacies of pain and chronic pain difficult.
In collaboration with scientists from the German-based pharmaceutical company Grünenthal, 23andMe has been conducting a pain study and researching chronic pain, as well as the role genetics plays in it all. 
<h6>Cold Pressor Test</h6>
For that work, we developed an online version of a known experimental pain test and used a clinically validated pain sensitivity questionnaire to gauge pain thresholds and tolerance.
During the online procedure, we ask some 23andMe customers who consented to participate in the study to place a hand in icy water for up to three minutes. This &#8220;cold pressor test&#8221; helps to gauge pain sensitivity, as does the questionnaire where participants need to imagine painful situations.
<h6>Online Pain Study<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright wp-image-28224 size-medium" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Cold-Pressor-240x300.png" alt="" width="240" height="300" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Cold-Pressor-240x300.png 240w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Cold-Pressor-818x1024.png 818w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Cold-Pressor-768x961.png 768w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Cold-Pressor-703x880.png 703w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Cold-Pressor-943x1180.png 943w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Cold-Pressor.png 1256w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 240px) 100vw, 240px" /></h6>
Using these two online methods allows for more accurate comparisons of pain perception between individuals. The researchers succeeded in this crucial step for studying the genetic differences in how individuals experience pain. A paper on this online “pain testing@home” was published this week in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/authors?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0231697">Plos One</a>.
&#8220;The success of using these online measures is really encouraging because it makes genetic research on pain much more feasible and scalable,&#8221; said Matthew H. McIntyre, Ph.D., a 23andMe senior scientist and the lead author of the study.
While we each understand our own levels of pain, it&#8217;s much harder to understand it in others. Those individual differences in both perception and tolerance of pain, also make it difficult to find treatments that work. Identifying the genetic associations for pain may help in identifying ways to treat it better.
&#8220;Our new paradigm testing@home will help advance genetic research into personalized treatments for pain,&#8221; said Achim Kless, Ph.D., a co-author, and Scientific Director and Principal Translational Scientist at Grünenthal.
<h6>Complexity of Pain</h6>
Beyond developing better ways to treat pain, the study could also shed more light on the complexity of chronic pain, a persistent menace experienced by an estimated 50 million people in the United States alone.
For this study, scientists included data from more than 30,000 23andMe customers who consented to participate in research. More than 8,000 of those participants administered the cold pressor test on themselves. The participants reported the results through a web-based interface custom-designed by 23andMe. The questionnaire was an online version of a clinically validated pain sensitivity questionnaire usually given on paper. It asked participants to rate imagined pain situations such as burning their tongue, or stubbing a toe, or getting a sunburn.
The study found differences between men and women.  Men have a higher threshold for pain. This finding was also something observed in clinical pain studies carried out under health care professional supervision. The researchers now hope to identify individuals who are either much more or much less sensitive to pain. The hope is to identify the genes that cause those differences. This, in turn, will help in identifying potential drug targets for treating pain.

23andMe Blog

23andMe Blog Team

A New Study on Pain

<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright wp-image-28208 size-medium" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-300x300.jpg" alt="A image of the globe and the double helix to represent those who have opted into participate in research on COVID-19" width="300" height="300" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-300x300.jpg 300w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-150x150.jpg 150w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-768x768.jpg 768w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-880x880.jpg 880w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-271x271.jpg 271w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-372x372.jpg 372w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-574x574.jpg 574w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16-980x980.jpg 980w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/1080x1080-COVID-IG-Copy-16.jpg 1080w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />Scientists around the world are racing to understand COVID-19 and the novel coronavirus that causes the disease. Among the questions they&#8217;re asking: Why do most people who are infected show mild to moderate symptoms (or possibly no symptoms at all), whereas others develop severe disease?
We know that certain factors — like advanced age or underlying health conditions like heart disease and diabetes — can make someone more likely to develop severe symptoms, including <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/study-on-pneumonia">pneumonia</a>. But even young, healthy people can develop severe symptoms and die from COVID-19. Why might that be?
Could genetics play a role?
With the help of our research participants, 23andMe is launching a research study to try to answer that question. Before we describe 23andMe’s planned research, here&#8217;s some of what is known about the role of genetics in other infectious diseases.
<h6>Human genetics plays a role in many infectious diseases</h6>
We know from <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg3114">past research</a> that genetics can influence a person&#8217;s susceptibility to different infectious diseases — including whether they&#8217;re infected and how severe their disease becomes.
For example:
<ul>
<li>Particular genetic variants in a gene called HBB can make people less susceptible to infection by the parasite that causes malaria. HBB contains instructions for making the hemoglobin protein that carries oxygen inside our red blood cells.</li>
<li>A particular genetic variant in a gene called CCR5 can protect people from HIV infection by preventing the virus from being able to enter certain T cells in our immune system. CCR5 codes for a protein that sits on the surface of those T cells.</li>
<li>People with a particular variant in the FUT2 gene are much less likely to be infected by norovirus. FUT2 codes for an enzyme that helps determine whether certain molecules are present on the surface of our gut cells.</li>
</ul>
In addition, genetic variants in HLA genes may explain the differences in response to several different conditions. This group of genes helps the immune system distinguish the body&#8217;s own proteins from proteins made by foreign invaders like viruses and bacteria. Studies have found that variants in these genes may help explain why HIV progresses more quickly in some people than others. Variants in the HLA genes may also influence why some people can clear hepatitis B infection and others don’t, instead ending up with a chronic disease. And variants in this same group of genes could offer insight into why some (but not all) people infected with dengue virus experience severe complications. In 2017, scientists at 23andMe published a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00257-5">genetic study</a> that identified almost 60 genetic variants associated with susceptibility to one of 17 different infectious diseases, and many of those variants were in HLA genes.
<h6>What about COVID-19?</h6>
So, could genetics help explain why certain people develop severe COVID-19 and others develop only mild or undetectable symptoms?
It&#8217;s too early to say for sure, but some scientists think that&#8217;s likely the case. At least a couple of studies have started looking for clues.
For example, in order to get inside our cells, the virus that causes COVID-19 latches onto a human protein called ACE2. And scientists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41421-020-0147-1">identified</a> genetic variants in and near the ACE2 gene that could impact how much ACE2 protein is made, or how the protein functions. This could make it easier or tougher for the virus to slip inside a person&#8217;s cells and make them sick. In another study, scientists <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.11.20031096v1">reported</a> that a person&#8217;s blood type — which is determined by the ABO gene — might influence their likelihood of being infected by the virus. While these preliminary observations are intriguing, more research in different populations and in larger groups of patients is needed to validate these and other findings.
<div style="float: right; text-align: justified; width: 300px; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px; margin-left: 10px;"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-28040" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/CDC-Image-of-Coronavirus.png" alt="" width="512" height="287" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/CDC-Image-of-Coronavirus.png 512w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/CDC-Image-of-Coronavirus-300x168.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" />
Coronavirus is a general term that includes many different (but related) viruses, including the one causing the current pandemic.
SARS-CoV-2 is the specific coronavirus in the news right now. SARS-CoV-2 stands for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, based on the symptoms it can cause. (The 2002-2003 SARS epidemic was caused by a virus called SARS-CoV.)
COVID-19 is the disease caused by the novel coronavirus. COVID-19 stands for coronavirus disease 2019 (the year the virus was first found in humans).
</div>
<h6>How 23andMe Research could make a difference</h6>
23andMe’s unique research model, with millions of customers consented to participate, offers our scientists a powerful tool for potential insight into the role genetics may play in explaining differences in the severity of the novel coronavirus.
One way to identify genetic variants that contribute to disease severity is a genome-wide association study or GWAS. In a GWAS, scientists compare the DNA of people who had severe symptoms to the DNA of people who had milder symptoms, or even no symptoms at all. Genetic variants that are more common in one of these groups of participants than the other represent genetic associations with COVID-19 severity.
And that&#8217;s just one question that <a href="https://research.23andme.com/covid19/">23andMe Research</a> hopes to answer. We&#8217;ll compare genetic variants in people who get very sick with variants in people who had milder symptoms or haven&#8217;t gotten sick. By identifying genetic variants that are more common in people who experienced severe disease, scientists may be able to better understand who&#8217;s most at risk. Perhaps even more importantly, these genetic studies can also help us gain new insights into how the novel coronavirus infects our cells and impacts our bodies. And those insights might give us clues to potential targets for new drugs or vaccines.
Learn more about 23andMe&#8217;s study <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/23andme-research/covid-19-genetic-study/">here</a>.
<hr>
<h6>References:</h6>
1) <a class="c-link" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22310894" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-describedby="slack-kit-tooltip">Chapman SJ et al. (2012). &#8220;Human genetic susceptibility to infectious disease.&#8221; Nat Rev Genet. 13(3):175-88.</a>
2) <a class="c-link" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32133153" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-describedby="slack-kit-tooltip">Cao Y et al. (2020). &#8220;Comparative genetic analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2) receptor ACE2 in different populations.&#8221; Cell Discov. 6:11.</a>
3)<a class="c-link" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28928442" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-describedby="slack-kit-tooltip">Tian C et al. (2017). &#8220;Genome-wide association and HLA region fine-mapping studies identify susceptibility loci for multiple common infections.&#8221; Nat Commun. 8(1):599.</a>
4) <a class="c-link" href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.11.20031096" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-describedby="slack-kit-tooltip">Zhao J et al. (2020). &#8220;Relationship between the ABO Blood Group and the COVID-19 Susceptibility.&#8221; medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.11.20031096</a> &nbsp;

Could genetics play a role in the severity of COVID-19?

During this global health crisis, 23andMe is activating its millions of consenting research participants to help contribute to our collective understanding of the new virus that causes COVID-19.
This week, 23andMe scientists began a study of COVID-19, to understand how genetics may influence the differences in severity of the disease among people.<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-28180 size-large" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1200x628-COVID-blog-1024x536.png" alt="" width="1024" height="536" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1200x628-COVID-blog-1024x536.png 1024w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1200x628-COVID-blog-300x157.png 300w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1200x628-COVID-blog-768x402.png 768w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1200x628-COVID-blog-880x461.png 880w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1200x628-COVID-blog-1180x618.png 1180w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1200x628-COVID-blog.png 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" />
A person&#8217;s age, exposure, and underlying health determine much of these differences, but genetics also likely plays a role. We know that for <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg3114">other infectious diseases</a>, genetics can influence susceptibility, but what about the severity of symptoms?
<h6></h6>

<h6>How genetics might impact COVID-19</h6>
Our existing research platform allows us to conduct this study quickly and on a large scale. <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright wp-image-28058 size-medium" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Screen-Shot-2020-02-24-at-9.32.29-AM-300x189.png" alt="" width="300" height="189" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Screen-Shot-2020-02-24-at-9.32.29-AM-300x189.png 300w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Screen-Shot-2020-02-24-at-9.32.29-AM-768x485.png 768w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Screen-Shot-2020-02-24-at-9.32.29-AM-1024x646.png 1024w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Screen-Shot-2020-02-24-at-9.32.29-AM-880x555.png 880w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Screen-Shot-2020-02-24-at-9.32.29-AM-1180x745.png 1180w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />
&#8220;We have been looking at how 23andMe can leverage its research platform to help better understand how humans might respond to this virus,&#8221; said Joyce Tung, Ph.D., 23andMe&#8217;s Vice President of Research. &#8220;Ultimately, we want to publish our research findings in order to help provide more insight on COVID-19 for the scientific community.&#8221;
23andMe scientists can quickly look for genetic variants that are more common among research participants who are sick with the virus, and see if there are genetic differences in those with the most severe symptoms.
<h6>The Study of COVID-19</h6>
Beginning this week, 23andMe hopes to enroll hundreds of thousands of 23andMe customers in the United States to participate in this study, which will include both individuals who have and have not tested positive for the virus.
The study, which will be conducted using online surveys, may also include contributions from those with family members that have experienced an infection. As with all our research, an external and independent ethics committee known as an institutional review board will oversee the work.
It’s critical to note this study will be longitudinal in nature. We will be asking people to participate in an initial baseline survey and inviting them back to take an additional survey on a monthly basis. This will enable us to collect data regarding new infections in the population should the outbreak continue to spread.
<h6>A Genome-Wide Association Study</h6>
Our scientists then will run a genome-wide association study. The purpose is to identify genetic variants associated with differences in the severity of the disease.
While we hope to gain insights from this research, there are no guarantees that we will find that genetics plays a significant role. In fact, the best possible outcome is that the pandemic decelerates, which could leave us unable to identify people with COVID-19, and would limit our ability to identify genetic associations.
However, if we can identify genetic variants associated with severe symptoms, scientists may be able to better understand who is more at risk due to genetic predispositions. These <a href="https://www.23andme.com/dna-health-ancestry/">genetic insights</a> could also give scientists a better understanding of how the novel coronavirus infects our cells and impacts our bodies.
<hr>
<h6>References:</h6>
1. <a class="c-link" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22310894" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-describedby="slack-kit-tooltip">Chapman SJ et al. (2012). &#8220;Human genetic susceptibility to infectious disease.&#8221; Nat Rev Genet. 13(3):175-88.</a>
2. <a class="c-link" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28928442" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" aria-describedby="slack-kit-tooltip">Tian C et al. (2017). &#8220;Genome-wide association and HLA region fine-mapping studies identify susceptibility loci for multiple common infections.&#8221; Nat Commun. 8(1):599.</a>

A logo for 23andMe's COVID-19 Research Study

23andMe Customers Participate in COVID-19 Genetic Study

Last year marked the tenth anniversary of 23andMe&#8217;s Parkinson&#8217;s Disease Research Community. <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright wp-image-22635 size-medium" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Brain-Logo-287x300.jpg" alt="" width="287" height="300" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Brain-Logo-287x300.jpg 287w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Brain-Logo.jpg 438w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 287px) 100vw, 287px" />
This community has not only helped our scientists and others make serious advances in the study of Parkinson&#8217;s but it has also ushered in a new approach to genetic research.
As part of Parkinson&#8217;s Awareness Month, we wanted to look back over the now 11 years since we formed the Parkinson&#8217;s Research Community and note some of what we&#8217;ve accomplished.

<h6>Growing Quickly</h6>
Back in 2009, when 23andMe first announced its plan to enroll 10,000 people with Parkinson&#8217;s disease, 23andMe didn&#8217;t even have 10,000 customers. With the help from our collaboration with <a href="https://www.michaeljfox.org/">The Michael J. Fox Foundation</a> (MJFF) and the Parkinson&#8217;s Institute, however, the company met its goal within five years. That milestone was just the first of many, as the community has helped power relevant research and insights into the disease.
Having so many people living with Parkinson&#8217;s participating in our research has meant that 23andMe&#8217;s genetic data repository on Parkinson&#8217;s is materially larger than anything that came before. Now it is by far the world&#8217;s largest cohort of its kind for Parkinson&#8217;s disease research. Now is a great time to reflect on some of our important discoveries and to remember that none of it would have been possible without the active participation of the 23andMe research participants and the dedication of scientists within and outside of 23andMe.
<h6>Some Milestones</h6>
Here are a few highlights:
<ul>
<li>To date, our researchers and collaborators discovered 90 genetic variants associated with the disease. These findings give scientists potential pathways for future research and insight into possible new drug targets to treat Parkinson&#8217;s.</li>
<li>23andMe researchers and collaborators have published 18 papers in peer-reviewed publications, including four in 2020 alone. Among those papers are new findings around <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/604033v1">putative causal risk factors</a> for Parkinson&#8217;s, genetic variants that influence the age of onset for Parkinson&#8217;s, and a genome-wide association study that was paired with single-cell gene expression data to help <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/528463v2">identify cell types</a> that are important for understanding the causes of Parkinson&#8217;s.</li>
<li>23andMe researchers have identified more than 100 phenotypic — or non-genetic traits or characteristics — associations with Parkinson&#8217;s, offering the potential of earlier detection of the disease.</li>
<li>23andMe researchers, in collaboration with scientists from The Michael J. Fox Foundation, are also pioneering novel ways of collecting and analyzing data to gain deeper insight into the disease. Among these new datasets is one, collected by 23andMe researchers, looking at <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/23andme-research/update-23andme-parkinsons-disease-research/">off-label drug use among Parkinson&#8217;s patients</a>. This is a practice by which doctors use medication approved by the FDA for one condition to treat other conditions for which the medication is not yet approved.</li>
<li>The Michael J. Fox Foundation launched <a href="https://foxinsight.michaeljfox.org/">Fox Insight</a>, an online clinical study to crowdsource data from people with and without Parkinson’s. Through a collaboration with 23andMe, eligible participants can also access the 23andMe Health + Ancestry Service and add their genetic information to the study at no cost. To date, more than 40,000 people are registered in the study — with the goal of recruiting hundreds of thousands more. And more recently, MJFF launched <a href="https://foxden.michaeljfox.org/insight/explore/insight.jsp">Fox DEN,</a> Fox Insight’s online portal to provide qualified Parkinson&#8217;s researchers access to its de-identified data.</li>
<li>We&#8217;ve also recently completed a small-scale pilot study looking at the gut and oral microbiomes of people with Parkinson&#8217;s. We plan to follow this up with a much larger study later this year including healthy controls.</li>
<li>In the past year, 23andMe’s Parkinson’s Disease Research strategy has expanded to include participants who are at increased risk of developing Parkinson’s disease. By participating in this research, people without Parkinson’s disease can help researchers better understand the factors that influence why some people develop Parkinson’s disease. This could help contribute to the development of new interventions and treatments to prevent or slow the progression of the disease. This expansion of research was kicked off with the launch of the Parkinson’s Impact Project, which focuses on individuals that carry the LRRK2 G2019S variant. 23andMe plans to expand research efforts to other at-risk cohorts in the near future.</li>
<li>As part of the Parkinson’s Impact Project, we kicked off enrollment of LRRK2 G2019S carriers, both with and without Parkinson’s disease, into the University of Rochester’s innovative telemedicine study, VALOR-PD.</li>
</ul>
<h6>A Model for 23andMe Research</h6>
<a href="https://www.23andme.com/pd/">23andMe&#8217;s Parkinson&#8217;s Research Community</a> is unique in that it allows for ongoing engagement with participants. In addition, we see that customers are also eager to take an active role. Because these individuals are so engaged, scientists are better able to track changes and understand the progression of Parkinson&#8217;s, as well as nimbly add new dimensions to their research. It may even help in identifying potential participants in clinical studies and accelerate the pace of drug development.
Beyond the participants in the community, 23andMe&#8217;s Parkinson&#8217;s disease research is more potent because of the millions of 23andMe customers who, while not part of the community, opt-in to participate in 23andMe Research. Having such a large number of &#8220;controls&#8221; is vital for researchers.
By leveraging online tools, computational know-how, engaged customers, and massive amounts of both phenotypic and genetic data, 23andMe has pioneered a new way of conducting genetic research over the past ten years. 23andMe&#8217;s ambitious efforts around Parkinson&#8217;s disease, also helped the company create the framework for how it, and now others, approach genetic research into other conditions.
There is no other study cohort with the scale and diversity of 23andMe, which has millions of participants who are both engaged and interested in contributing to research.
<h6></h6>

23andMe’s Parkinson’s Research Community, More than a Decade of Discovery   

An international team of researchers discovered previously unknown genetic mechanisms that lead to myopia, or nearsightedness, including new associations with circadian rhythm.<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/myopia-300x169.jpg" alt="" class="alignright wp-image-26222 size-medium" width="300" height="169" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/myopia-300x169.jpg 300w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/myopia-768x432.jpg 768w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/myopia-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/myopia-880x495.jpg 880w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/myopia-1180x663.jpg 1180w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/myopia.jpg 1366w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />
Led by scientists at King’s College London, researchers from University College London, Kaiser Permanente, and 23andMe identified three ways that genetics plays a role in myopia, according to the study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-020-0599-0">Nature Genetics</a>.
“Myopia is an amazingly complex disorder,” <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/news/researchers-discover-genetic-processes-determine-short-sightedness">said Dr. Pirro Hysi</a>, the lead author of the study and a researcher at King’s College London’s School of Life Course Sciences. “For the first time, we now have enough of the jigsaw pieces that the biology is becoming clear.” 

<h6>Association with Circadian Rhythm</h6>
Myopia, or nearsightedness where far away objects look blurry, affects more than a third of adults in both the UK and the United States. And while researchers have long known that both genetics and environment influence why someone develops myopia, this very large study was able to uncover some unexpected biology. The study found that genes involved in the circadian rhythm — the inner biological clock regulating our 24-hour long sleep and wake cycles — could be an important factor. 
“Changes in the day and night cycles are a possible explanation for the previous observations that myopia is more common in those who spend less time outdoors,” said Professor Jugnoo Rahi, from University College London’s Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health.
In addition, researchers found overlapping associations with genes that play a role in pigmentation of the eyes, hair, and skin. Scientists had previously found that some genetic disorders that affect pigmentation also caused changes to the back of the eye that resulted in more severe myopia, but the strength of the association found in this study was surprising, said to <a href="https://spotlight.kaiserpermanente.org/genetics-of-near-sightedness/">Eric Jorgenson</a>, Ph.D., an investigator with the Kaiser Permanente Northern California Division of Research and a co-author of the study.
&nbsp;
<h6>Predictive Model</h6>
To make these findings, researchers used data from more than half a million individuals from the UK Biobank, Kaiser Permanente and 23andMe customers who consented to participate in research. Drawing on this very large dataset, the researchers were able to analyze thousands of genetic variants across more than 450 genes. 
Along with the association with genes involved with circadian rhythm, the researchers found an association with the mechanisms by which light signals are transmitted by the retina in the eye to the brain. 
In addition, the many genetic variants the researchers found that are associated with myopia, could be used to better predict nearsightedness. A genetic model based on the identified DNA variants successfully predicted up to 75 percent of myopia in the participants tested.

New genetic associations for nearsightedness

Early puberty among boys is associated with shorter lifespans, according to a new genetic study by scientists at the University of Cambridge. <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Teenage-Boys-.jpg" alt="" class="alignright wp-image-28161 size-medium" width="300" height="200" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Teenage-Boys-.jpg 509w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Teenage-Boys--300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />
Published this week in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-14451-5">Nature Communications</a>, the study also identified more than 76 genes and gene regions that influence the timing of puberty in boys.
<h6> BMI and Hair Color</h6>
Some of those genetic associations are also linked with measures of obesity, body mass index (BMI), and hair color. The study found that men with red, dark brown and black hair were more likely to have gone through puberty earlier than other men.
 
“The link between early puberty and shorter life expectancy may be partly explained by its negative impact on cardiometabolic health and diseases such as type 2 diabetes,” said co-first author<a href="http://www.mrc-epid.cam.ac.uk/people/felix-day/"> Dr. Felix Day</a> from the<a href="http://www.mrc-epid.cam.ac.uk/blog/genetics-early-male-puberty-shorter-lifespan/"> MRC Epidemiology Unit at the University of Cambridge</a>. “If so, then finding ways to prevent early puberty could help.”
 
<h6>Puberty Timing in Men and Women </h6>
Day is part of a team of researchers who have been studying puberty timing both in men and women. Previous studies have found shared genetic associations between both sexes for the timing of puberty.
 
Traditionally it has been more difficult to study this life stage in boys. As such, most of our previous understanding of the genetic influence on puberty came from studies of women. Studying puberty in women and girls is often easier because it is often easier for a girl to recall her period. For boys remembering milestones that mark puberty like “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms9842">voice breaking</a>” is often harder to recall. A recent large-scale study of the DNA of 370,000 women identified 389 independent genetic associations. Those associations account for approximately one-quarter of the estimated heritability for puberty.
 
<h6>Longterm Health</h6>
Up until now, genetic studies of puberty timing in men are much fewer and smaller in scale. For this study, the scientists analyzed data from more than 200,000 men of European ancestry. To do that they included data mostly from the UK Biobank, but also data from 23andMe customers who consented to participate in research.   
 
While the associations with BMI may in part explain the link with shorter lifespans, the link with hair color is less clear. Researchers believe the hair color association points toward a connection with a common set of hormonal regulators in the brain. Those regulators play a role in several different traits. 
 
“Our most surprising finding was that some of the genes that regulate puberty timing in boys and girls also determine hair color,” said Dr. John Perry, a senior author of the paper who is also at the MRC Epidemiology Unit.
 
The finding highlights “an interesting common set of hormonal regulators in the brain that regulates both of these seemingly diverse traits,” Perry said.

Study Finds Health Impact for Early Puberty in Boys

In the largest genetic study of its kind, researchers at Indiana University have identified new genetic associations with squamous cell skin cancer.<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/discover_data-e1489600524787.png" alt="" class="size-full wp-image-25113 alignright" width="200" height="200" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/discover_data-e1489600524787.png 200w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/discover_data-e1489600524787-150x150.png 150w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px" />
The study, involving data from more than 680,000 individuals, including 20,000 people with squamous cell carcinoma, identified new genetic variants associated with the condition. 
The study was a meta-analysis, meaning it included data from many different studies, including data from about 280,000 23andMe customers who consented to participate in research.
<h6>Skin Pigmentation</h6>
While confirming previous findings that genes associated with skin pigmentation are associated with squamous cell cancers, the study also found some additional genes that are associated with cancer progression and immune response, among other things. 
The study identified eight new genetic variants associated with squamous cell cancer, bringing the total known variants associated with this type of non-melanoma skin cancer to 22.
&#8220;We can certainly say there is some genetic overlap between squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, and melanoma &#8212; the three major types of skin cancer &#8212; but we also found some genes that are specific for squamous cell carcinoma,&#8221;<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/02/200218182206.htm"> said Jiali Han</a>, Ph. D, the lead author of the paper, and a professor and researcher at Indiana University’s School of Medicine.
<h6>Non-Melanoma</h6>
Squamous cells and basal cells are also known as non-melanoma skin cancers. Both usually respond to treatment and rarely spread to other parts of the body, according to the National Cancer Institute. Melanoma is more aggressive, however, and can spread to other parts of the body if it&#8217;s not diagnosed early. Having fair skin, freckles, blue eyes, and brown hair are also risk factors for squamous cell skin cancer.
The research is published online in<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-14594-5#Sec2"> Nature Communications</a>.
&nbsp;

New Genetic Research on Skin Cancer

By Jey McCreight &amp; Ava Daniel
To honor Women’s History Month, 23andMe is sharing stories of a few female scientists who contributed to the field of genetics, each of whom made their mark despite great societal and institutional obstacles.<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright size-medium wp-image-28112" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/WHM-BlogPost-300x157.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="157" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/WHM-BlogPost-300x157.jpg 300w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/WHM-BlogPost-768x402.jpg 768w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/WHM-BlogPost-1024x536.jpg 1024w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/WHM-BlogPost-880x461.jpg 880w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/WHM-BlogPost-1180x618.jpg 1180w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/WHM-BlogPost.jpg 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" />
Nowadays most people have heard of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>, the X-ray crystallographer who along with Watson and Crick famously contributed to the discovery of the double-helix structure of DNA. But for years her contribution was not recognized. It took a concerted effort to draw attention to her important contribution, making her a classic example of the hidden woman in science.
The reality is that women have been contributing to scientific research for hundreds of years, but institutionalized sexism has long prevented them from getting the credit they deserve. The field of genetic research is no exception. Here we would like to do our part in setting the record straight by highlighting some of the women who made important discoveries that built the foundation for modern genetics research.

<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janaki_Ammal">Janaki Ammal, Ph.D.</a> (1897-1984) </h6>
<img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright size-medium wp-image-24284" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Microscope-Icon-192x300.jpg" alt="" width="192" height="300" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Microscope-Icon-192x300.jpg 192w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Microscope-Icon.jpg 456w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 192px) 100vw, 192px" />An Indian botanist and cytologist who studied the variation in chromosome number, or ploidy, across a wide range of garden plants. This led to many insights into how species and varieties of plants evolved. She was the first woman to attain a Ph.D. in botany in the US, and the Janaki Ammal Award of Taxonomy was created in 1999 to encourage students and scholars to pursue this field of work.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Auerbach">Charlotte Auerbach, Ph.D.</a> (1899-1994)</h6>
A German Jewish geneticist who was a pioneer in studying what causes genetic mutations. She authored a total of 91 papers and was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Royal Society of London. She was also a recipient of the 1976 Darwin Medal.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Chase">Martha Chase, Ph.D.</a> (1927-2003)</h6>
An American geneticist credited with confirming DNA as the genetic material of life. She and Alfred Hershey created and performed the notable Hershey-Chase experiment, which proved that DNA, not protein, held and transmitted genetic information. Hershey was awarded a Nobel Prize for the achievement, but Chase was not.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Maynard_Daly">Marie Maynard Daly, Ph.D.</a> (1921-2003)</h6>
An African American biochemist. She was the first Black woman to earn a doctorate in biochemistry in the U.S. She is most notable for her research involving the creation of proteins, as well as histones, which are the proteins that help package DNA into chromosomes. Watson cited Daly’s research as having contributed to research into the structure of DNA.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Oakley_Dayhoff">Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, Ph.D.</a> (1925-1983)</h6>
An American physical chemist and pioneer in the field of bioinformatics. She was one of the first scientists to integrate mathematics, computation, and biochemistry. She is known for originating point accepted mutations (PAM) and creating the one-letter code for amino acids &#8211; those As, Ts, Cs, and Gs.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Lederberg">Esther Lederberg, Ph.D.</a> (1922-2006) <img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="alignright size-medium wp-image-171" src="https://blog-api.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/23chromosomes1-300x214.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="214" srcset="https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/23chromosomes1-300x214.jpg 300w, https://blogcms.23andme.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/23chromosomes1.jpg 435w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" /></h6>
An American microbiologist who pioneered the field of bacterial genetics. She developed the microbial technique of replica plating, which can be used to investigate antibiotic resistance. Lederberg also discovered the ? bacteriophage, a virus frequently used as a tool in genetics experiments, as well as bacterial F-plasmid, a piece of DNA that gives bacteria the ability to transfer DNA to each other. She also founded and directed the Plasmid Reference Center at Stanford University.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_F._Lyon">Mary Frances Lyon, Ph.D.</a> (1925-2014)</h6>
A British geneticist best known for her discovery of X-chromosome inactivation. This is a process by which one X chromosome is inactivated in some female mammals, including humans. <a href="http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/dox/calico.html">Calico cats</a> are a fantastic visual representation of the phenomena. A Cambridge graduate, she was the recipient of over a dozen notable awards in the field of genetics for her work.
<h6>
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_McClintock">Barbara McClintock, Ph.D.</a> (1902-1992)</h6>
An American maize cytogeneticist who discovered transposable elements. These are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome, and their discovery helped illustrate how genes affect physical characteristics. McClintock also demonstrated fundamental genetic ideas like recombination, crossing-over, and the role of telomeres and centromeres. She is the only woman who has received an unshared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Sager">Ruth Sager, Ph.D.</a> (1918-1997)</h6>
An American geneticist known for pioneering the field of cytoplasmic genetics. She is credited with discovering the transmission of genetic traits through chloroplast DNA, which is found in plants. She also conducted groundbreaking cancer genetics research on tumor suppressor genes in the early 1970s.
<h6><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettie_Stevens">Nettie Stevens, Ph.D.</a> (1861-1912)</h6>
An early American geneticist credited with the discovery of sex chromosomes (X and Y). She was the first American woman acknowledged for her contributions to science. Her work expanded the fields of modern genetics, cytology, and embryology.
Know of any other women in the realm of scientific advancement? Join the conversation by commenting below.

Research — Page 20