
<p>Since 2014, a powerful collaboration between <a href="https://palmerlab.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Abraham Palmer, Ph.D.</a> and <a href="https://www.sanchezroigelab.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sandra Sanchez-Roige, Ph.D.</a> at the University of California San Diego (UCSD) and 23andMe has been at the forefront of understanding how our DNA influences complex human behaviors. This enduring partnership has yielded groundbreaking insights published in high-impact journals such as <em>Nature Neuroscience</em>, the <em>American Journal of Psychiatry</em>, and others. Some of these studies include the <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/wait-new-genetic-research-impulsivity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first-ever genome-wide association study of delay discounting</a> (the tendency to devalue larger future rewards in favor of smaller more immediate rewards), identification of more than a <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/the-genetics-of-alcoholism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dozen variants associated with alcohol use disorder</a>, the discovery of the shared genetic associations between <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/the-genetics-of-loneliness-and-its-impact-on-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">loneliness and other health conditions</a>, and one of the <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/new-genetic-insights-into-cannabis-use" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">largest genetic studies on cannabis use</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="1024" height="761" src="/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Palmer-and-Sanchez-Roige-1024x761.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-34870" style="width:533px;height:auto" srcset="/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Palmer-and-Sanchez-Roige-1024x761.jpg 1024w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Palmer-and-Sanchez-Roige-300x223.jpg 300w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Palmer-and-Sanchez-Roige-768x571.jpg 768w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Palmer-and-Sanchez-Roige-880x654.jpg 880w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Palmer-and-Sanchez-Roige-1180x877.jpg 1180w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Palmer-and-Sanchez-Roige.jpg 2018w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-pursuit-of-knowledge">A Shared Pursuit of Knowledge</h2>



<p>At its core, this collaboration is driven by a shared vision: to identify the genetic underpinnings of behaviors that significantly impact human health. The goal is not just academic; it&#8217;s about identifying novel insights that can lead to better prevention, intervention, and treatment strategies for individuals struggling with substance use disorders. By understanding the genetic factors that contribute to these complex traits, researchers can pave the way for more personalized and effective approaches.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-heart-of-the-research">The Heart of the Research</h2>



<p>These remarkable discoveries would be impossible without the generous contributions of 23andMe research participants. Millions of individuals have voluntarily consented to share their de-identified genetic and health data, providing the large sample sizes that are necessary to identify subtle yet significant genetic associations. This collective effort is the engine driving some of the largest behavioral genetic studies ever conducted.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-testament-to-enduring-science">A Testament to Enduring Science</h2>



<p>Science, by its very nature, takes time. New discoveries often lead to new questions, fueling further exploration. The 12-year span of this partnership is a testament to the dedication and long-term vision of both 23andMe and Drs. Palmer and Sanchez-Roige. It represents a sustained commitment to tackling some of the most challenging questions in human behavior, a commitment that continues to bear fruit.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proven-through-peer-reviewed-science">Proven Through Peer-Reviewed Science</h2>



<p>The collaboration’s journey began when the first of three surveys was developed and deployed to 23andMe research participants in 2014. Just three years later, in 2017, the first <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29058377/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peer-reviewed publication</a> from this collaboration was published, showing that the online survey taken by 23andMe research participants can effectively be used to identify genetic factors underlying alcohol use disorder.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Since 2017, the momentum has only grown, with 16 additional papers already published and many more on the horizon. These papers represent a significant contribution to the global scientific community and stand as a direct result of the millions of research participants who have contributed their data and time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Trusted Partners</h2>



<p>From the perspective of Drs. Palmer and Sanchez-Roige, the decision to work with, and crucially, <em>continue</em> working with 23andMe for over a decade speaks volumes about the company&#8217;s rigorous research standards and commitment to scientific excellence.</p>



<p>&#8220;23andMe offers an unparalleled resource for genetic research,&#8221; says <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/abraham-palmer-ucsd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Palmer</a>. &#8220;Their commitment to data privacy, ethical research, and the scale of their participant base makes them an ideal collaborator for tackling novel genetic questions that would be nearly impossible to answer elsewhere.&#8221;</p>



<p>&#8220;One of the reasons we’ve sustained this partnership for over a decade is 23andMe’s commitment to ethical oversight,&#8221; continues Dr. Palmer. &#8220;Every study we conduct is overseen by an independent Institutional Review Board (IRB), ensuring that participant privacy and informed consent are always the top priority. It allows us to focus on our research questions because we know 23andMe has systems in place to uphold the highest ethical standards.&#8221;</p>



<p>&#8220;What makes 23andMe a truly unique research environment is the strong engagement of the participants,&#8221; says Dr. Sanchez-Roige. &#8220;Unlike traditional studies that might take years to recruit a few hundred people, we can deploy a survey and receive thousands of thoughtful responses in a matter of days. This agility allows us to ask entirely new questions about behavior and environment, collecting the rich phenotypic data necessary to understand complex issues like aspects related to opioid use in ways we never could before.&#8221;</p>



<p>Dr. Sanchez-Roige continues, &#8220;working with the 23andMe Research Institute is more than just having access to a database; it has been a productive collaboration with outstanding colleagues. And the research participants are also devoted to contributing to science, meaning we aren&#8217;t just looking at static data; we are actively learning from millions of people who are as interested in these scientific answers as we are.&#8221;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Looking Ahead</h2>



<p>As this research moves into the next phase of this partnership, the focus is expanding beyond genetics alone. Dr. Palmer says, &#8220;our recent work has demonstrated that answers to survey questions — even without genetic data — are powerful predictors for identifying individuals at risk for opioid use disorder.&#8221; Dr. Sanchez-Roige adds, &#8220;The data we’ve collected argues strongly for using a few questions to flag a small subset of individuals who are at high risk for opioid addiction before it&#8217;s too late. This project is ongoing, our survey on opioid use is still available for 23andMe research participants as we seek to obtain 500,000 completed responses.&#8221;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">A Heartfelt Thank You to Our Participants</h3>



<p>The true scale of this achievement is best measured in the time and dedication of research participants. &#8220;To put it in perspective, a single 15-minute survey that receives 500,000 responses represents the equivalent of 14.25 years of research participant time!&#8221; says Dr. Palmer. The ability to crowdsource data at this scale, in genotyped individuals, is what makes the 23andMe Research Institute a trusted research partner and a global leader in genetics and behavioral science.</p>



<p>The insights gained over the last 12 years are already reshaping how we understand the human experience. As we continue to ask new questions and uncover new associations, we move closer to a world where substance use disorders are met with better tools, deeper empathy, and more effective treatments.</p>



<p>Complete the <a href="https://you.23andme.com/research/surveys/opioid_pain_medication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Opioid Pain Medication Survey</a> to help advance research efforts focused on the connection between genes and opioids.</p>



<div style="max-width: 750px; width: 100%; margin: 0 auto; text-align: justify; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px;">
<h4>About the Collaborators</h4>
<p><strong>Abraham Palmer</strong>, Ph.D.
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Abraham Palmer is a Professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of California San Diego. His current research emphasizes leveraging large-scale human genetic datasets alongside powerful preclinical models to identify risk genes, map biological pathways, and translate genetic discoveries into a deeper mechanistic understanding of addiction and related psychiatric outcomes. He has been a member of 23andMe since 2012 and has completed more surveys than 99% of 23andMe research participants. He is an avid cyclist who lives in San Diego, California with his wife, two teenaged children, two cats and one dog.
<br><a href="https://palmerlab.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">www.palmerlab.org</a></p>
<p><strong>Sandra Sanchez-Roige</strong>, Ph.D.
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Sandra Sanchez-Roige is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of California San Diego. Her research focuses on identifying the biological drivers that place people at risk for substance use disorders using genetics, genomics, medical bioinformatics, and cross-species translational approaches. She has been a member of 23andMe since 2016, is “likely to prefer chocolate over vanilla ice cream” and has a variant in the ACTN3 gene that means her “muscle composition is common in elite power athletes”, according to 23andMe reports. She co-leads the Sanchez-Roige Lab with Lisa, a talented British Shorthair cat, and Margot, a curious six-year-old girl, and Victor, a partner, slide beta-tester, and conference travel companion.
<br><a href="https://www.sanchezroigelab.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.sanchezroigelab.org</a></p>
</div>



<p></p>



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table class="has-fixed-layout" style="border:1px solid #000; border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td>
<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Publications:</h3>
<ol>
<li>Sanchez-Roige, S et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29058377/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-wide association study of alcohol use disorder identification test (AUDIT) scores in 20 328 research participants of European ancestry.”</a> <em>Addiction Biology</em> vol. 24,1 (2019): 121-131.</li>
<li>Sanchez-Roige, S et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29230059/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-wide association study of delay discounting in 23,217 adult research participants of European ancestry.”</a> <em>Nature Neuroscience</em> vol. 21,1 (2018): 16-18.</li>
<li>Pasman, J A et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30150663/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“GWAS of lifetime cannabis use reveals new risk loci, genetic overlap with psychiatric traits, and a causal influence of schizophrenia.”</a> <em>Nature Neuroscience</em> vol. 21,9 (2018): 1161-1170.</li>
<li>Sanchez-Roige, S et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30336701/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-Wide Association Study Meta-Analysis of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in Two Population-Based Cohorts.”</a> The <em>American Journal of Psychiatry</em> vol. 176,2 (2019): 107-118.</li>
<li>Sanchez-Roige, S et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30718321/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-Wide Association Studies of Impulsive Personality Traits (BIS-11 and UPPS-P) and Drug Experimentation in up to 22,861 Adult Research Participants Identify Loci in the CACNA1I and CADM2 genes.”</a> <em>J Neurosci.</em> vol. 39,13 (2019): 2562-2572.</li>
<li>Karlsson Linnér, R et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30643258/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-wide association analyses of risk tolerance and risky behaviors in over 1 million individuals identify hundreds of loci and shared genetic influences.”</a> <em>Nature Genetic</em>s vol. 51,2 (2019): 245-257.</li>
<li>Abdellaoui, A et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31518406/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Phenome-wide investigation of health outcomes associated with genetic predisposition to loneliness.”</a> <em>Human Molecular Genetics</em> vol. 28,22 (2019): 3853-3865.</li>
<li>Dennis, J et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31796895/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genetic risk for major depressive disorder and loneliness in sex-specific associations with coronary artery disease.”</a> <em>Molecular Psychiatry</em> vol. 26,8 (2021): 4254-4264.</li>
<li>Gustavson, D E et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32716714/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“The Latent Genetic Structure of Impulsivity and Its Relation to Internalizing Psychopathology.”</a> <em>Psychological Science</em> vol. 31,8 (2020): 1025-1035.</li>
<li>Sanchez-Roige, S et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34728798/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-wide association study of problematic opioid prescription use in 132,113 23andMe research participants of European ancestry.”</a> <em>Molecular Psychiatry</em> vol. 26,11 (2021): 6209-6217.</li>
<li>Sanchez-Roige, S et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37173343/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“CADM2 is implicated in impulsive personality and numerous other traits by genome- and phenome-wide association studies in humans and mice.”</a> <em>Translational Psychiatry</em> vol. 13,1 167 (2023).</li>
<li>Gustavson, D E et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39323941/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Executive Function and Impulsivity Predict Distinct Genetic Variance in Internalizing Problems, Externalizing Problems, Thought Disorders, and Compulsive Disorders: A Genomic Structural Equation Modeling Study.”</a> <em>Clin Psychol Sci.</em> vol. 12,5 (2024): 865-881.</li>
<li>Thorpe, H H A et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38858598/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-wide association studies of coffee intake in UK/US participants of European ancestry uncover cohort-specific genetic associations.”</a> <em>Neuropsychopharmacology</em> vol. 49,10 (2024): 1609-1618.</li>
<li>Jennings, M V et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38580523/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“A phenome-wide association and Mendelian randomisation study of alcohol use variants in a diverse cohort comprising over 3 million individuals.”</a> <em>EBioMedicine</em> vol. 103 (2024): 105086.</li>
<li>Mallard, T T et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41152253/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Characterizing the Pleiotropic Architecture of Impulsivity and Its Links to Psychopathology and Neurodevelopment.”</a> <em>The American Journal of Psychiatry</em> vol. 183,1 (2026): 31-47.</li>
<li>Thorpe, H H A et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41077612/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-wide association studies of lifetime and frequency of cannabis use in 131,895 individuals.”</a> <em>Molecular Psychiatry</em> vol. 31,2 (2026): 1061-1073.</li>
<li>Thorpe, H H A et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41286433/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“Genome-wide association study of delay discounting identifies 11 loci and reveals transdiagnostic associations across mental and physical health.”</a> <em>Molecular Psychiatry</em>, 10.1038/s41380-025-03356-8. (2025).</li>
</ol>
</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>



<p></p>


A Decade of Discovery: Unraveling the Genetics of Behavior with 23andMe and UCSD


<p><em>By Éadaoin Harney, Ph.D</em>.</p>



<p>Long-distance relationships are nothing new. In the 6th century, the Silk Road was the ultimate connector: a thousands-of-miles-long highway spanning from Asia to Southern Europe, that brought people, religions, and traditions together. This Valentine’s Day, we’re looking at the story of a partnership that emerged from this ancient trade route.</p>



<p>In 2005, archaeologists discovered a joint tomb just outside the ancient Chinese capital of Chang’an (modern-day Xi&#8217;an). According to inscriptions found at the site, the tomb belonged to a man named Li Dan and his wife, a couple who had been laid to rest there approximately 1,500 years ago.</p>



<p>While a DNA test cannot technically &#8220;prove&#8221; if two people were in love, their shared burial and the unique mix of designs inspired by two distinctive cultures found on their tomb suggest a connection that defied geographical barriers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-mystery-written-in-stone">A Mystery Written in Stone</h2>



<p>For centuries, the story of this couple was a riddle hidden in plain sight. Li Dan’s funeral inscription made two contradictory claims: it stated he was a descendant of prestigious Chinese aristocratic clans, yet it also identified his father and grandfather as Brahmins from ancient South Asian kingdoms.</p>



<p>The rest of the tomb only added to the mystery, as it featured a fusion of cultures. Although the tomb was built in a traditional Chinese architectural style, it was decorated with a mixture of local mythical figures, like the Four Divine Beasts, and foreign guardians that resembled Buddhist statues from India. Even more striking was the discovery of a gold coin from the Eastern Roman Empire found in the wife’s mouth—a custom common along the Silk Road but far from the local norm.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="748" height="890" src="/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Li_Dan_tomb_entrance_line_drawing.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-34839" style="width:337px;height:auto" srcset="/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Li_Dan_tomb_entrance_line_drawing.jpg 748w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Li_Dan_tomb_entrance_line_drawing-252x300.jpg 252w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/Li_Dan_tomb_entrance_line_drawing-740x880.jpg 740w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 748px) 100vw, 748px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>A line drawing of the entrance to Li Dan&#8217;s tomb</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cross-border-connection-written-in-dna">A Cross-Border Connection Written in DNA</h2>



<p>Late last year, a team of researchers decided to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study the couple’s DNA</a> to help resolve the contradictions found in their tomb. The results provided the first direct genomic evidence of a 6th-century couple with such distinct ancestral backgrounds.</p>



<p>Genetic analysis revealed that Li Dan had northern South Asian ancestry. His genetic profile showed broad similarities to present-day Brahmin groups, supporting the inscriptions on his tomb suggesting his family belonged to this community. In contrast, his wife’s ancestry was local to Chang’an, tracing back to ancient farmers of the Middle Yellow River in northern China. The unique mix of Chinese and South Asian influences discovered in their tomb reflects a blending of cultures that likely characterized their lives.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-home-at-the-heart-of-the-world">A Home at the Heart of the World</h2>



<p>We may never know how they felt about each other, but their tomb tells us how they may have lived. Li Dan was a high-status traveler who arrived in Chang’an to expound Buddhist scriptures after studying in the kingdom of Jibin. Rather than remaining an outsider, he settled down, married a local woman, and adopted a Chinese surname, all while keeping the traditions of his homeland alive.</p>



<p>This Valentine&#8217;s Day, their story reminds us that even 1,500 years ago, the most enduring connections can bridge different worlds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learn-more">Learn More</h2>



<p>Want to see if you’re genetically connected to this ancient couple, or to hundreds of other historical individuals? The <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/23andmes-historic-matches" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Matches</a><sup>SM</sup> feature is available to <a href="https://www.23andme.com/membership/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">23andMe+ Premium</a>™ members.</p>



<div style="max-width: 700px; width: 100%; margin: 0 auto; text-align: justify; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px;">
<h4>About the Author</h4>
<p><strong>Éadaoin Harney</strong>, Ph.D. — Scientist II, Population Genetics R&#038;D
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Éadaoin Harney is an expert in the field of ancient DNA, with over a decade of experience extracting, sequencing, and analyzing the DNA of ancient and historical people from across the globe. Dr. Harney is a Population Geneticist at 23andMe and a Lecturer in the Department of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, where she teaches courses on human population genetics. Her current research focuses on searching for direct (Identical-by-Descent) genetic connections between historical and living people to learn about historical migrations and to help restore genealogical connections to the past that have been lost to time.</p>

</div>


New Historical Matches Could Link You to This 6th Century “Cross-Border” Couple


<p><em>By Alisa Lehman, Ph.D.</em></p>



<p>Black History Month is a time to honor the resilience and contributions of the Black community. At the 23andMe Research Institute, we recognize that our understanding of human health and genetics is deeply rooted in the participation of people of African descent, whose contributions are essential to shaping one of the most diverse genetic research cohorts in the world.</p>



<p>Despite decades of progress in genetics, people of African descent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39694036/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remain vastly underrepresented in biomedical research</a>. That gap limits what science can uncover and who ultimately benefits from those discoveries. </p>



<p>Through member participation and programs aimed at <a href="https://www.23andme.com/global-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasing research representation from certain global regions</a>, today, the 23andMe Research Institute is proud to host the world’s largest genetic research cohort of individuals with African ancestry reflecting the deep genetic diversity of African and African American communities and humanity as a whole. This diversity of research participants helps to drive discoveries that benefit all of us.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-participation-to-personal-insights">From Participation to Personal Insights</h2>



<p>It&#8217;s important that the new insights generated from our members&#8217; contributions to research are returned to you. The contributions of consented Black and African American research participants has led to significant enhancements in the member experience. For example:</p>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><strong>Expanded Genetic Groups:</strong> Over 250 Genetic Groups in <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/a-new-era-for-african-genetic-groups-at-23andme" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Africa</a>, more than 200 <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/new-23andme-update-connects-many-african-american-customers-to-southern-roots" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African American</a> Genetic Groups, and 19 <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/23andme-adds-more-detail-for-afro-caribbean-ancestry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Afro-Caribbean</a> Genetic Groups that have come as a direct result of more diverse data from 23andMe customers who have consented to participate in research.</li>



<li><strong>Targeted Health Reports:</strong> Through the years we have delivered insights into traits and conditions that disproportionately affect the Black and African American community, such as <a href="https://www.23andme.com/topics/carrier/sickle-cell-anemia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sickle cell anemia</a>, <a href="https://www.23andme.com/topics/health-predispositions/g6pd-deficiency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">G6PD deficiency</a>, and <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/the-duffy-antigen-gene-a-clue-behind-white-blood-cell-differences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duffy antigen status</a>.</li>
</ul>



<p>But the impact of this research community extends far beyond individual reports and features for our members. It is fundamentally advancing what humanity knows about itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-impact-landmarks-in-research">Global Impact: Landmarks in Research</h2>



<p>By choosing to participate in our research program, our members are helping rewrite history books and shape the future of medicine. Here are a few ways our research cohort is making an impact:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-1-uncovering-lost-history">1. Uncovering Lost History</h3>



<p>23andMe researchers used DNA to connect living people to enslaved and free African Americans buried at the <a href="https://catoctinfurnace.org/ironworker/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Catoctin Furnace</a> historical site. This <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/historical-dna-connection-to-early-enslaved-and-free-african-americans" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landmark work</a> shows how DNA can be used to both restore some knowledge of the individuals buried at sites like this, as well as help bridge the gap left by missing historical records to living descendants, restoring stories that time and systemic erasure tried to hide.</p>



<p style="padding-left: 20pt;">Harney, Éadaoin et al. “The genetic legacy of African Americans from Catoctin Furnace.” Science (New York, N.Y.) vol. 381,6657 (2023): eade4995. doi:10.1126/science.ade4995</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-2-mapping-the-transatlantic-legacy">2. Mapping the Transatlantic Legacy</h3>



<p>Our large-scale study on the <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/transatlantic-slave-trade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transatlantic slave trade</a> provided a deeper look into the genetic impact of the Middle Passage. By analyzing the genomes of over 50,000 research participants, we’ve been able to better understand the regional origins and the complex history of the African diaspora in the Americas. Ultimately, this research may empower participants to reconnect to histories that were severed by the transatlantic slave trade.</p>



<p style="padding-left: 20pt;">Micheletti, Steven J et al. “Genetic Consequences of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in the Americas.” American journal of human genetics vol. 107,2 (2020): 265-277. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.06.012</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3-refining-understanding-of-sickle-cell-trait">3. Refining Understanding of Sickle Cell Trait</h3>



<p>Our research study of <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/new-genetic-research-on-sickle-cell-trait" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sickle cell trait</a> was the largest and most diverse study of this trait, and included more than 4 million consented research participants. This important study showed that those with sickle cell trait (meaning people who carry one copy of the HbS variant in the HBB gene) do have a slightly increased likelihood of developing harmful blood clots. However, the magnitude of that risk is still below other genetic factors (such as Factor V Leiden) that are also known to increase the risk of harmful blood clots. While having sickle cell trait is typically considered being a carrier without any impact to your own health, this research shows that the estimated eight to 10 percent of African Americans who have sickle cell trait may benefit from knowing about potential risks (especially in other situations that may increase the chances of harmful blood clots, such as surgeries or hospitalizations). </p>



<p><strong>Learn more about <a href="https://www.23andme.com/sickle-cell-awareness-program/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Sickle Cell Carrier Status Awareness Program</a>.</strong></p>



<p style="padding-left: 20pt;">Lin, Keng-Han et al. “Ancestry-independent risk of venous thromboembolism in individuals with sickle cell trait vs factor V Leiden.” Blood advances vol. 8,21 (2024): 5710-5718. doi:10.1182/bloodadvances.2024014252</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-need-for-research">Ongoing need for research</h2>



<p>Scientific progress must benefit everyone and to do that we must continue to engage diverse participants in research. We remain committed to ongoing research and collaboration with the Black and African American community to advance understanding of conditions that particularly impact them. One ongoing example is the <a href="https://www.23andme.com/genetic-insights-into-colorectal-cancer-black-community/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic insights into colorectal cancer in the Black community</a> study. Launched in collaboration with the Colorectal Cancer Alliance, the study aims to shed light on the genetics of colorectal cancer, which Black and African Americans are <a href="https://colorectalcancer.org/basics/facts-and-statistics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">about 15% more likely to develop and 35% more likely to die</a> from compared to non-Hispanic white Americans. This study is one of many critical steps toward closing the health disparity gap. This data ensures that the next generation of treatments and preventative care is designed with <em>all</em> populations in mind.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-the-research-model">The Power of the Research Model</h2>



<p>This is the heart of the 23andMe Research Institute: a cycle of participation and discovery. Members contribute their data and their time to research. That research leads to new scientific insights. And those insights are then returned, through new reports, features, knowledge, and publications to the very people who made the discoveries possible.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If members choose to contribute to research, they aren&#8217;t just a participant; they are a collaborator. Their contribution fuels a cycle that makes the world’s largest genetic database of individuals with African ancestry even more representative and more useful for everyone.</p>



<div style="float: center; text-align: justified; width: 700px; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px;">
<h4>About the Author</h4>
<p><strong>Alisa Lehman</strong>, Ph.D. — Sr. Manager, Product Science
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Alisa Lehman has been working at 23andMe since 2015 creating scientifically accurate, consumer-friendly genetic reports on ancestry and health topics. Dr. Lehman holds a B.S. in Biology from MIT, and a Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Stanford University.</p>
</div>


The Power of Representation in Genetic Research


<p><em>By Alisa Lehman, Ph.D.</em></p>



<p>Fear and anxiety are part of a threat-response system that is essential for survival. But for up to one in three people this system can become dysregulated, leading to anxiety disorders like generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and phobias.</p>



<p>Researchers have known these conditions have a genetic component and can run in families, but the exact genetic underpinnings have been hard to identify. Now, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-025-02485-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a new study</a>, led by researchers from the Anxiety Disorders Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC-ANX), has identified dozens of new genetic variants linked to anxiety disorders, and data from millions of consented 23andMe research participants was used to confirm their findings.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hunt-for-anxiety-associated-genetic-variants">The Hunt for Anxiety-Associated Genetic Variants</h2>



<p>To find the genetic variants involved in complex traits like anxiety disorders, scientists need a lot of study participants. To get this large group, the researchers combined data from 36 different studies of people from Europe, the United States, and Australia. In total they had 122,225 people diagnosed with an anxiety disorder and 729,960 unaffected controls.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Then the researchers performed a genome-wide association meta-analysis, which scans the entire genome looking for genetic variants that are more common in people with anxiety disorders. By comparing the genomes of those with anxiety disorders to those without, the team identified 58 significant genetic variants associated with anxiety disorders.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirmation-the-critical-role-of-replication">Confirmation: The Critical Role of Replication</h2>



<p>Finding genetic variants associated with anxiety disorders is just the first step. To be confident it&#8217;s a <em>real</em> association and not a statistical fluke, results must be replicated in a completely independent group of people.</p>



<p>This is where the <a href="https://www.23andmeresearchinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">23andMe Research Institute</a> came in. The researchers tested their 58 variants in a massive cohort of consented 23andMe research participants, which included 1,175,012 participants who self-reported having anxiety and 1,956,379 participants who reported they did not.</p>



<p>Of the 55 variants they could test, all showed the same direction effect as in the discovery study, and 51 were significantly replicated. This gives researchers high confidence that these genetic variants are genuinely associated with anxiety in this population.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-critical-reminder-about-ancestry-groups-and-diversity">A Critical Reminder About Ancestry Groups and Diversity</h2>



<p>The study&#8217;s next step is an important lesson for the future of genetic research. The team attempted to replicate their findings using data from over 30,000 African American participants in the Million Veteran Program.</p>



<p>The result? Of the 53 variants tested in this cohort, only 27 (about 51%) showed the same effect, a rate no better than random chance.</p>



<p>This is not a flaw in the study; it is a crucial finding. It demonstrates that genetic discoveries made in one group (in this case, people of European descent) do not always reliably apply to other groups. This underscores the urgent need for diverse populations to participate in future genetic studies to ensure that the scientific and medical benefits of this research can be shared by everyone.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-do-these-genes-do">What Do These Genes Do?</h2>



<p>Identifying the 58 genetic variants and replicating the finding was just the first step. Researchers also wanted to know what these variants do. Functional analysis provided a major clue.</p>



<p>The variants were found to be active in all major brain regions. More specifically, the results highlighted GABAergic signaling as a potential biological mechanism underlying anxiety disorders. GABA is the brain&#8217;s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, meaning it is a chemical messenger that calms down brain activity.</p>



<p>This is particularly exciting because many current anti-anxiety medications (like benzodiazepines) work by targeting this exact system. And there are also other genes in the GABAergic signaling pathway that could be good targets for future drugs to treat anxiety disorders.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="481" height="208" src="/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/anxiety-Img.png" alt="" class="wp-image-34814" style="width:230px;height:auto" srcset="/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/anxiety-Img.png 481w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/02/anxiety-Img-300x130.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 481px) 100vw, 481px" /></figure>



<p>This study represents a major leap in our understanding of the genetic basis of anxiety. These 58 variants provide a foundational genetic basis that can guide scientists in future investigations into the biological pathways that lead to anxiety, with the ultimate hope of developing new and better treatments.</p>



<p><em>Learn more about 23andMe Research <a href="https://www.23andme.com/research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. Research participants provided informed consent and volunteered to participate in the research online, under a protocol approved by the external, independent review board AAHRPP-accredited <a href="https://www.versiticlinicaltrials.org/salusirb" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salus IRB</a>.</em></p>



<div style="float: center; text-align: justified; width: 700px; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px;">
<h4>About the Author</h4>
<p><strong>Alisa Lehman</strong>, Ph.D. — Sr. Manager, Product Science
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Alisa Lehman has been working at 23andMe since 2015 creating scientifically accurate, consumer-friendly genetic reports on ancestry and health topics. Dr. Lehman holds a B.S. in Biology from MIT, and a Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Stanford University.</p>
</div>


Major New Finding on Genetics and Anxiety

A New Era of Discovery: Looking Ahead to the Future of Genetics


<p><em>Note this post has been updated since it was first published in January 2025</em></p>



<p>When it comes to longevity, does it matter more whether you have &#8220;good genes&#8221; or &#8220;good habits?&#8221; While the factors that influence how long we live are complex and varied, the combination of the genetics you&#8217;re born with and the choices you make play a key role in your overall lifespan.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-lives-longer">Who lives longer?</h2>



<p>It’s no surprise that people who live longer often avoid or <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39212787/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">delay major age-related diseases</a>. To increase your chances of adding more healthy years, focus on these <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38065710/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eight key healthy behaviors</a>:</p>



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Participating in physical activity</li>



<li>Getting restorative sleep</li>



<li>Eating a balanced diet</li>



<li>Managing stress</li>



<li>Maintaining strong social connections&nbsp;</li>



<li>Avoiding smoking</li>



<li>Limiting alcohol consumption&nbsp;</li>



<li>Avoiding opioid use&nbsp;</li>
</ol>



<p>These behaviors can help delay and prevent disease, and also contribute to overall well-being.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-about-genetics">What about genetics?</h2>



<p>Not surprisingly, your genes play an important role in longevity. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41610249/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Some estimates</a> are that up to around 50% of lifespan can be attributed to genetics (in particular when you exclude &#8220;extrinsic&#8221; causes of death, such as accidents or infections). Avoiding age-related diseases is a key factor in longevity, so genetic variants that protect against disease (or at least don&#8217;t increase your risk) are often associated with longer lifespan. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-apoe-in-longevity">The role of APOE in longevity</h3>



<p>One of the most clear and consistent genetic links with longevity is in the <em>APOE</em> gene. While the well known <em>e</em>4 variant increases the risk for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30060062/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">late-onset Alzheimer&#8217;s disease</a>, the <em>e</em>2 variant of this gene is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30060062/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">associated with a longer lifespan</a>.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-longevity-genes">Other longevity genes</h3>



<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31413261/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Several</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30642433/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have found other genes connected to longevity, including the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18765803/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FOXO3 gene</a>, which is often seen in studies of people who live very long lives. However, many of these studies were done with small groups or focused only on people of European ancestry. It&#8217;s still unclear how genetics could be used to directly predict who might live longer. While predicting exact lifespan is complex, understanding your genetics can help you take proactive steps toward a healthier life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-genetics-and-lifestyle">Combining genetics and lifestyle</h2>



<p>While genetics can influence your predisposition to certain diseases, combining genetic and lifestyle information can provide a fuller picture of disease risk. It can also help motivate and focus your efforts to prevent those diseases.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, in the <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/stay-on-track-with-23andme-health-tracks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">23andMe+ Premium Health Tracks</a><sup>SM</sup> feature, you can see how a healthy lifestyle can reduce your chances of developing a health condition even if you have an increased genetic predisposition for that condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-takeaways-on-longevity">Key takeaways on longevity</h2>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>While having &#8220;good genes&#8221; may give you some advantages, the<strong> healthy habits</strong> you adopt play a significant role in determining how long and how well you live.</li>



<li>Understanding your <strong>genetic predispositions</strong> can help you take proactive steps to prevent disease, and that&#8217;s the key to living more healthy years.</li>
</ul>



<p><em>*The 23andMe PGS test uses qualitative genotyping to detect select clinically relevant variants in the genomic DNA of adults from saliva to report and interpret genetic health risks. It is not intended to diagnose any disease. Your ethnicity may affect the relevance of each report and how your genetic health risk results are interpreted. Each genetic health risk report describes if a person has variants associated with a higher risk of developing a disease but does not describe a person’s overall risk of developing the disease. The test is not intended to tell you anything about your current state of health or to be used to make medical decisions, including whether or not you should take a medication, how much of a medication you should take, or determine any treatment.</em></p>



<p><em>The Late-Onset Alzheimer’s Disease genetic health risk report is indicated for reporting of the e4 variant in the APOE gene. It describes if a person has a variant associated with an increased risk of developing late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. The e4 variant included in this report is found and has been studied in many ethnicities. Detailed risk estimates have been studied the most in people of European descent.</em></p>


How genetics and lifestyle shape longevity


<p><em>By Éadaoin Harney, Ph.D.</em></p>



<p>In 2004, a construction crew preparing to build a shopping center in Norwich, England, uncovered a disturbing mystery: a medieval well containing the commingled remains of at least 17 people. The positioning of the skeletons suggested they had been thrown in head-first, victims of a single, violent event. For years, the identity of these individuals remained unknown, their story lost to the silence of the well.</p>



<p>But thanks to ancient DNA technology, a team of researchers from the Natural History Museum and University College London was finally able to tell their story in a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36044903/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic study published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em> in 2022</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This month, 23andMe is adding these individuals to our <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/23andmes-historic-matches" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Matches</a><sup>SM</sup> feature, allowing customers to see if they share a genetic connection to one of the earliest identified Ashkenazi Jewish communities in England. This update offers a poignant glimpse into this tragic moment in history.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-medieval-mystery">Solving a Medieval Mystery</h2>



<p>When archaeologists first analyzed the site, the chaotic nature of the burial suggested a catastrophe, such as famine, epidemic, or violent massacre, in which the victims were hastily buried by survivors in a makeshift grave. However the exact nature of this catastrophe remained a mystery.</p>



<p>In this genetic study, researchers sequenced the genomes of six individuals buried within the well, shedding new light on the individuals buried within the mass grave. Their analyses revealed that all six individuals shared strong genetic affinities with present-day Ashkenazi Jewish populations. Additionally, radiocarbon dating placed their deaths between 1161 and 1216 CE. This precise timeline, combined with their ancestry and the location of the well just south of the medieval Jewish quarter, pointed towards a specific historical tragedy in Norwich’s history: the antisemitic riots of February 6, 1190 CE, for which there is historically documented evidence of a massacre of the Jewish community in Norwich.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-family-connections">Family Connections</h2>



<p>What makes this study particularly powerful is that it revealed that those buried in the well were not strangers, but a group of close relatives who likely sought shelter together during this violent massacre. Among the six individuals whose genomes were sequenced, the research team identified three young sisters and two other distantly related males. This suggests that the victims of this attack were not randomly selected from across the Norwich population, but instead that these may have been members of a single or small number of households or families who had gathered together for protection.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-genetic-history">A Window into Genetic History</h2>



<p>This study also provided the first genetic data for a Jewish community in medieval England, offering a new timeline for the Ashkenazi &#8220;genetic bottleneck&#8221;—a historical event detectable in the genomes of people with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry where the population size was drastically reduced, leading to lower genetic diversity. While historians had previously theorized this bottleneck occurred later, during the persecutions of the 14th or 15th centuries, the genetic signatures in the Norwich individuals suggest it began centuries earlier.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This early genetic bottleneck is the reason why variants associated with specific hereditary diseases are common among modern Ashkenazi Jewish populations. With this in mind, the study team searched for these disease-associated markers and discovered that variants responsible for a number of conditions that occur at elevated frequency in Ashkenazi Jewish populations were already present in the medieval Norwich population at frequencies similar to those seen today. This finding challenges the long-held belief that such diseases became more common in this community later in history. Instead, the study demonstrates that the genetic factors affecting Ashkenazi Jewish health today have a lineage stretching back nearly a millennium, predating the major pogroms and expulsions of the later Middle Ages.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-the-past">Honoring the Past</h2>



<p>Although Jewish law typically prohibits the disturbance of human remains, the likely religious identity of these individuals was unknown during the initial rescue excavation in 2004. However, once researchers suspected that the remains might belong to members of the medieval Jewish community, they immediately consulted with the Norwich Hebrew Congregation. The study proceeded only after receiving specific permission from the Office of the Chief Rabbi to investigate the history of these individuals. Following the completion of osteological and genetic analyses, the remains were respectfully reinterred in the Jewish cemetery in Norwich during a multi-faith ceremony. Today, these individuals are remembered through a commemorative plaque placed near the original site of the well, ensuring their story is no longer lost to history.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="768" height="1024" src="/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Jewish_memorial_in_Earlham_cemetery_Norwich._JPG-768x1024.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-34742" style="width:358px;height:auto" srcset="/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Jewish_memorial_in_Earlham_cemetery_Norwich._JPG-768x1024.jpg 768w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Jewish_memorial_in_Earlham_cemetery_Norwich._JPG-225x300.jpg 225w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Jewish_memorial_in_Earlham_cemetery_Norwich._JPG-660x880.jpg 660w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Jewish_memorial_in_Earlham_cemetery_Norwich._JPG-885x1180.jpg 885w, /wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Jewish_memorial_in_Earlham_cemetery_Norwich._JPG-scaled.jpg 1920w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>A photo of the memorial stone that was placed at the site where the individuals were reburied. It is located in the Jewish section of Earlham Cemetery, Norwich.</em> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jewish_memorial_in_Earlham_cemetery_Norwich._JPG.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northmetpit</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Explore Your Connection</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.23andme.com/membership/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">23andMe+ Premium</a>™ members can now explore whether they share a genetic link to these individuals–and hundreds of others–through the Historical Matches feature.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A Note of Remembrance</h2>



<p>We are releasing this update as we approach January 27, the United Nations-designated International Holocaust Remembrance Day. While the events in Norwich occurred centuries before the Holocaust, they serve as a somber reminder of the long history of antisemitism and the atrocities committed against Jewish communities throughout history.</p>



<div style="float: center; text-align: justified; width: 700px; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px;">
<h4>About the Author</h4>
<p><strong>Éadaoin Harney</strong>, Ph.D. — Scientist II, Population Genetics R&#038;D
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Éadaoin Harney is an expert in the field of ancient DNA, with over a decade of experience extracting, sequencing, and analyzing the DNA of ancient and historical people from across the globe. Dr. Harney is a Population Geneticist at 23andMe and a Lecturer in the Department of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, where she teaches courses on human population genetics. Her current research focuses on searching for direct (Identical-by-Descent) genetic connections between historical and living people to learn about historical migrations and to help restore genealogical connections to the past that have been lost to time.</p>

</div>


New Historical Matches Could Connect you to the Lost Jewish Community of Medieval Norwich


<p><em>by Alisa Lehman, Ph.D.</em></p>



<p>January is National Blood Donor Month, a time dedicated to recognizing the life-saving impact of blood donation and the importance of understanding our blood health. While many of us know about blood types like A, B, or O, there are actually <a href="https://www.isbtweb.org/resource/tableofbloodgroupsystems.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dozens of different blood group systems</a> all determined by your genetics.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-blood-types">Genetics of Blood Types</h2>



<p>Your blood type is determined by which antigens, complex molecules like proteins or sugars, sit on the surface of your red blood cells. Many of these antigens act as biological &#8220;nametags,&#8221; allowing your immune system to identify your cells as &#8220;self&#8221; rather than &#8220;foreign.&#8221; Your genetics determine which antigens you produce.</p>



<p>The A and B antigens are what determine if someone has the familiar A, B, AB, or O <a href="https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood types</a>. However, there are hundreds of unique antigens. Patients who may need to receive frequent blood transfusions (for example, people with <a href="https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity/african-american-blood-donors.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sickle cell disease</a>) may need as close a match as possible to these various antigens. This is one of the reasons why it is important to have as many <a href="https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse blood donors</a> as possible.</p>



<p>In addition to helping others via blood donation, having certain antigen variations can have a profound impact on how your health is managed. One of the most significant, yet often overlooked, is the Duffy antigen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-duffy-antigen-a-genetic-clue-in-your-blood">The Duffy Antigen: A Genetic Clue in Your Blood</h2>



<p>The Duffy antigen gene (ACKR1) provides instructions for making the Duffy antigen. A specific genetic variant in this gene stops that antigen from being made on certain cells in the body. People who have two copies of this genetic variant don&#8217;t have any Duffy antigen on their red blood cells and are said to be &#8220;Duffy null.&#8221; Duffy null status is very common among people of African descent: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35994632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nearly 70%</a> of Black and African Americans are Duffy null.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it&#8217;s believed that Duffy null status originally evolved to provide protection against certain types of malaria (the <em>Plasmodium vivax</em> malaria parasite depends on the Duffy antigen to be able to infect red blood cells), it also affects another part of your blood: your white blood cell count.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-low-is-actually-normal">When &#8220;Low&#8221; is Actually Normal</h2>



<p>When you get blood work done, laboratories compare your results to reference ranges to determine if your levels are &#8220;normal,&#8221; &#8220;high,&#8221; or &#8220;low.&#8221; One common test measures neutrophils, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting infections. However, these reference ranges are often based on populations where Duffy null status is rare — meaning they don&#8217;t necessarily reflect what is &#8220;normal&#8221; for everyone.</p>



<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35994632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nearly 25%</a> of healthy Black and African Americans with Duffy null status have neutrophil counts that fall below the standard &#8220;normal&#8221; range. They <strong>do not</strong> have an increased risk for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32959868/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infection</a> or <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39825822/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other health problems</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Because blood testing labs typically don&#8217;t account for Duffy status, the impact on the Black community is significant: Overall, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35994632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 15%</a> of all Black and African Americans have counts that may be flagged as &#8220;too low.&#8221;</p>



<p>When these natural genetic variations are ignored, individuals can be misdiagnosed with neutropenia (abnormally low neutrophil counts). This label can set off a chain reaction of <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/the-duffy-antigen-gene-a-clue-behind-white-blood-cell-differences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">downstream harms</a> that affect quality of care, including unnecessary testing, exclusion from clinical trials, and delayed or reduced access to certain medications.</p>



<p>As Dr. Lauren Merz, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology at the University of Michigan, who provided expert feedback on the 23andMe White Blood Cell Count (Duffy Antigen-Related) report, said: </p>



<p><strong>“I’ve seen patients that are told that they might have cancer, go through painful bone marrow biopsies, miss out on joining clinical trials, or have critical medications like chemotherapy discontinued simply because their white blood cell counts were interpreted without understanding their Duffy status.”</strong></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalizing-your-health-care">Personalizing Your Health Care</h2>



<p>This National Blood Donor Month, as we recognize the importance of blood types for transfusion, it is equally important to recognize how genetic markers like Duffy shape our personal health journey.</p>



<p>Knowing your Duffy status empowers you to have a more informed conversation with your doctor. By viewing your blood test results through the lens of your unique genetics, you can avoid unnecessary testing and ensure you’re getting the most effective, personalized care possible.</p>



<p>Interested in donating blood this National Blood Donor Month? Visit the <a href="https://www.redcrossblood.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Red Cross website</a> to check your eligibility and find a donation center near you.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.23andme.com/membership/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>23andMe+ Premium</em></a><em>™ members can learn about their Duffy status in the White Blood Cell Count (Duffy Antigen-Related) report.</em></p>



<div style="float: center; text-align: justified; width: 700px; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px;">
<h4>About the Author</h4>
<p><strong>Alisa Lehman</strong>, Ph.D. — Sr. Manager, Product Science
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Alisa Lehman has been working at 23andMe since 2015 creating scientifically accurate, consumer-friendly genetic reports on ancestry and health topics. Dr. Lehman holds a B.S. in Biology from MIT, and a Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Stanford University.</p>
</div>



<p></p>


Beyond A, B, and O: Your Genetics and Blood Type


<p>The standard advice for breast cancer screening has been simple and uniform: start your annual mammograms at age 40. But what if the future of screening isn&#8217;t one-size-fits-all, but deeply personal, guided by your own unique risk profile?</p>



<p>Results from a major study, the WISDOM study, show that the one-size-fits-all approach is increasingly outdated. </p>



<p><strong>“<em>I am excited about a future where genetic information becomes the foundation of personalized health,</em>”</strong> says Dr. Noura Abul-Husn, 23andMe Research Institute VP of Genomic Health and Chief Medical Officer. <strong>“<em>Since the start, the 23andMe Research Institute has been focused on helping our members benefit from genetics-informed prevention and care.</em>”</strong></p>



<p>The WISDOM study, led by UCSF researchers and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41385349/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published in <em>JAMA</em></a> (<em>The Journal of the American Medical Association</em>), explored this very question. Following 28,000 women, the researchers randomized participants into two groups: one receiving traditional annual screening, and the other receiving screening tailored to their personalized risk.</p>



<p>The personalized risk group was divided into four levels. For the lowest-risk women, breast cancer screening was not recommended until age 50. For the highest-risk women, screening was often accelerated to twice a year and included an MRI, regardless of age.</p>



<p>The powerful finding? This personalized approach, including waiting until age 50 for mammograms for the lowest-risk group, did <strong>not</strong> result in more late-stage cancer diagnoses compared to the annual screening group. This suggests that tailoring screening to individual risk is a safe and potentially more efficient path forward.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-risk-your-genes-why-family-history-isn-t-enough">Your Risk, Your Genes: Why Family History Isn’t Enough</h2>



<p>The WISDOM study provided compelling evidence for the value of genetics. Researchers included genetic testing for all women in the personalized risk group. In a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41385723/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">second crucial finding</a>, they discovered that approximately <strong>30% of women</strong> in the study who carried genetic variants that increased their risk had <strong>NO family history of breast or ovarian cancer</strong>.</p>



<p>This reinforces what other studies (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30646163/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1</a>,<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39669632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2</a>) have shown to be a <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1902783" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">critical gap</a> in existing guidelines, which often rely heavily on family history or ancestry to determine who qualifies for extra screening. Without access to their genetic information, these women would have been overlooked, potentially delaying a necessary conversation about earlier or more intensive screening.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-genes-vs-polygenic-risk-the-complete-picture">Single Genes vs. Polygenic Risk: The Complete Picture</h2>



<p>Breast cancer is not one disease, and risk is not determined by one factor. At 23andMe, we know that truly understanding individual risk requires looking at genetics in different ways:</p>



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li><strong>Single-Gene Risk:</strong> These are high-impact variants in genes like <em>BRCA1</em> and <em>BRCA2</em> that can significantly increase risk. They are rare but powerful indicators, often associated with hereditary cancer syndromes.</li>



<li><strong>Polygenic Risk Scores (PRS):</strong> These scores look across many genetic variants throughout the genome, measuring how the usually small genetic effect of many variants add up to impact your overall risk. No single variant has a major effect, but the cumulative effect can be highly informative.</li>
</ol>



<p><strong>Both are important.</strong> High-impact genetic variants tell you about a strong, specific hereditary risk, while PRS provides a broader measure of your general genetic predisposition. A comprehensive view, incorporating both, gives you the most complete picture of your inherited risk.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-23andme-can-help-inform-your-decisions">How 23andMe Can Help Inform Your Decisions</h2>



<p>Having access to this genetic information is the first step in creating a more informed starting point for conversations with your doctor about screening and prevention.</p>



<p>At the 23andMe Research Institute, we are committed to making personalized health information accessible:</p>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><strong>FDA-Authorized Reports on High-Impact Variants:</strong> Our health services include the only FDA-authorized direct-to-consumer test that screens for select high-impact variants in the <em>BRCA1</em> and <em>BRCA2</em> genes.</li>



<li><strong>Polygenic Risk Scores (PRS):</strong> For <a href="https://www.23andme.com/membership/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">23andMe+ Premium</a>™ members, we offer a Breast Cancer PRS Report that looks across the genome to evaluate risk.</li>



<li><strong>Comprehensive Screening:</strong> Our most comprehensive genetic test, the <a href="https://www.23andme.com/total-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">23andMe Total Health</a>™ service includes exome sequencing to identify additional high-impact genetic variants that may impact health.</li>
</ul>



<p>Genetic information is a powerful tool that can help guide decision making. The WISDOM study reinforces the message that personalized screening is the way forward. By bringing your risk profile, including your genetics, to a healthcare professional, you can have a tailored discussion about the screening frequency, age of initiation, and supplemental monitoring (such as ultrasound or MRI) that is right for <em>you </em>and your personalized breast cancer risk.</p>



<p>The future of cancer screening is increasingly personal, and your DNA should be an essential part of that story.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-references">References</h2>



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Manickam K, Buchanan AH, Schwartz MLB, et al. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30646163/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Exome Sequencing-Based Screening for BRCA1/2 Expected Pathogenic Variants Among Adult Biobank Participants.</a> JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(5):e182140. Published 2018 Sep 7. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.2140</li>



<li>Llorin H, Tennen R, Laskey S, Zhan J, Detweiler S, Abul-Husn NS. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39669632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shortcomings of ethnicity-based carrier screening for conditions associated with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.</a> Genet Med Open. 2024;2:101869. Published 2024 Jul 16. doi:10.1016/j.gimo.2024.101869</li>
</ol>



<p></p>


The Future of Screening is Personal: What the WISDOM Study Says About Breast Cancer and Genetics


<p><em>By Éadaoin Harney, Ph.D</em>.</p>



<p>This December, we’re adding 18 new individuals dating to the Late Antique Period in Dalmatia to our <a href="https://blog.23andme.com/articles/23andmes-historic-matches" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Matches</a><sup>SM</sup> feature.</p>



<p>These newly added historical matches offer a rare biological glimpse into a world in transition during the decline of the Roman Empire. Keep reading to learn more about the region’s unique history.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-late-antique-period">What is the Late Antique Period?</h2>



<p>Historians generally define the &#8220;Late Antique&#8221; period as the era between the third and seventh centuries CE. It was a time of significant transformation for the Roman world, as political instability, shifting borders, and economic pressures altered long-standing structures across the Mediterranean. This period bridged the gap between the classical Roman era and the early Middle Ages.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-is-dalmatia">Where is Dalmatia?</h2>



<p>The Roman province of Dalmatia was situated along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, encompassing much of modern-day Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and parts of Serbia and Albania. The region takes its name from the Dalmatae, an Illyrian tribe that historically inhabited the interior.</p>



<p>For centuries, Dalmatia was integrated into the imperial Roman system, featuring established coastal towns, island settlements, and a network of roads and ports that linked the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. Its position along major maritime routes meant it remained a key logistical hub even as the Empire faced mounting challenges.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-late-antique-port-of-hvar">Life in the Late Antique Port of Hvar</h2>



<p>Although we know Dalmatia served as a vital connection point during this period, historical records reveal relatively little about the daily lives of its inhabitants. To fill this gap, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39606698/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a 2024 study</a> analyzed the remains of 33 individuals recovered from the Hvar-Radoševi? burial site on the island of Hvar.</p>



<p>Using a multidisciplinary approach that combined ancient DNA sequencing, chemical dietary analysis, and skeletal health assessments, the research team reconstructed the biological profile of this community.</p>



<p>Their findings painted a vivid picture of a community shaped by its connection to the wider Roman world. While most individuals were genetically similar to other ancient Mediterranean populations, the study identified several outliers with roots in the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa, confirming the island&#8217;s role as a cosmopolitan crossroads.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the instability of the Roman world at this time also had its impact. Despite access to the sea, the dietary analysis revealed a surprise: the population appears to have consumed very little seafood, subsisting mostly on grains and terrestrial crops. The skeletal evidence further revealed that life in this strategic port was physically demanding, characterized by high childhood mortality and signs of significant physiological stress.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learn-more">Learn More</h2>



<p>Could you be connected to the inhabitants of Late Antique Dalmatia—or to hundreds of other historical individuals? The Historical Matches feature is available to <a href="https://www.23andme.com/membership/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">23andMe+ Premium</a>™ members.</p>



<div style="float: center; text-align: justified; width: 700px; background-color: #eee; padding: 15px;">
<h4>About the Author</h4>
<p><strong>Éadaoin Harney</strong>, Ph.D. — Scientist II, Population Genetics R&#038;D
</p>
<p> 
Dr. Éadaoin Harney is an expert in the field of ancient DNA, with over a decade of experience extracting, sequencing, and analyzing the DNA of ancient and historical people from across the globe. Dr. Harney is a Population Geneticist at 23andMe and a Lecturer in the Department of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, where she teaches courses on human population genetics. Her current research focuses on searching for direct (Identical-by-Descent) genetic connections between historical and living people to learn about historical migrations and to help restore genealogical connections to the past that have been lost to time.</p>

</div>


New Historical Matches Could Connect You to the Dalmatian Coast During the Late Roman Period


<p>23andMe&#8217;s blog offers genetics news, customers stories, and articles about research. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="600" height="333" src="http://35.88.189.111/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Blog-Logo-e1521071249823.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-26081" srcset="/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Blog-Logo-e1521071249823.jpg 600w, /wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Blog-Logo-e1521071249823-300x167.jpg 300w, /wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Blog-Logo-e1521071249823-271x149.jpg 271w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" /></figure>



<h1 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blog-insights">Blog Insights</h1>



<p>23andMe is the only DTC DNA testing company with FDA authorization. Our blog gives readers a chance to learn more about genetic testing and science. Along with learning about science and research, we offer up tips and insights into the products and what you can learn by using 23andMe.</p>


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